Contribution of Al Haytham to science and Scientific Method

The year 2015 was celebrated as the International year of light and light based technologies. One among its many objectives, was to celebrate the legacy of Ibn AlHaytham the Arab polymath. The year 2015 actually marks the 1000th anniversary since the appearance of the remarkable seven volume treatise on optics Kitab al-Manazir written by Ibn al Haytham. Born around a thousand years ago in Iraq, AlHasan Ibn alHaytham was a pioneering scientific thinker who made important contributions to the understanding of vision, optics and light. Ibn alHaytham, started not only the traditional theme of optical research but also new ones such as meteorological optics, catoptrics, burning mirrors, dioptrics, the burning sphere and physical optics. Apart from optics Ibn al-Haytham made significant advances in mathematics and astronomy.

His work on optics was characterised by a strong emphasis on carefully designed experiments to test theories and hypotheses. His methodology of investigation using experiment to verify theory is the precursor of the modern scientific method. Ibn alHaytham's work was remarkable for its emphasis on proof and evidence. Ibn alHaytham articulated some remarkably sophisticated statements on the practice of science and the growth of scientific knowledge. In a critical treatise ‘AlShukūk ‛alā Batlamyūs’ he asserts that "Truth is sought for itselfbut the truths are immersed in uncertainties and the scientific authorities are not immune from error…. Nor is human nature itself". Therefore, the seeker after the truth is not one who studies the writings of the ancients and, following his natural disposition, puts his trust in them, but rather the one who suspects his faith in them and questions what he gathers from them, the one who submits to argument and demonstration and not to the sayings of a human being whose nature is fraught with all kinds of imperfection and deficiency. Thus the duty of the man who investigates the writings of scientists is to make himself an enemy of all that he reads and applying his mind to the core and margins of its content, attack it from every side. He should also suspect himself as he performs his critical examination of it, so that he may avoid falling into either prejudice or leniency. This is what the modern scientific method is all about. Latin translations of some of his works have influenced important Medieval and European Renaissance thinkers like Roger Bacon, René Descartes and Christian Huygens, who knew him as Alhazen.

Ibn alHaytham was born in the year 965 in Basra, and died in about 1040 in Cairo. During his years in Egypt he composed one of his most celebrated works, the Kitab al-Manazir. Ibn al Haytham undertook a systematic critique of all previous ideas about vision in order to demonstrate by both reason and experiment that light was a crucial and independent part of the visual process. He concluded that vision takes place when a light ray issued from a luminous source or reflected from a non luminous body enters the eye. Through his studies of earlier work by Galen and others, he gave names to several parts of the eye, such as the lens, the retina and the cornea. In fact the word lens comes from the Latin translation of the term ‘Adsa’ used by Ibn alHaytham because a doubleconvex lens is lentil (Masur Daal) shaped. The genus of the lentil plant is Lens, and the most commonly eaten species is Lens culinaris. Ibn alHaytham explained the nature of light and vision, using a dark chamber or the concept of pinhole camera. Alhazen offered an explanation of the Moon illusion. He also carried out the first experiments on the dispersion of light into its constituent colours and studied shadows, rainbows and eclipses; and by observing the way sunlight diffracted through the atmosphere, he was able to work out a rather good estimate for the height of the atmosphere, which he found to be around 100 km.

His other extant books related to the subject of light include: A Discourse on Light (al Daw), The Light of the Moon (Ḍawʾ al-qamar), The Light of the Stars, The Rainbow and the Halo (al-Hāla wa qaws quzaḥ), Spherical Burning Mirrors, Parabolic Burning Mirrors, The Burning Sphere, The Shape of the Eclipse (Ṣūrat al-kusūf) and the Formation of Shadows .

The crater Alhazen on the Moon is named in his honour, as is the asteroid 59239 Alhazen.

My tryst with Libraries

The general perception of libraries is as repository of learning resources like manuscripts, books, periodicals, journals, letters, microfilms and CDs. There are libraries of all kinds such as public libraries, academic libraries or specific libraries such as Gandhi Sangrahalyas which preserves documents related to the father of the nation Mahatma Gandhi. There are however libraries which preserve scientific models and instruments as well. As such they become  useful  in understanding the history of development of science, technology and entrepreneurship. In this article my personal quest in understanding the development of astronomy and the subsequent entrepreneurship of crafting astronomical instrument in certain regions of India has been outlined. David Sassoon library of Mumbai is perhaps  a unique library which has been established by entrepreneurs for the promotion of craftsmanship. History of everything particularly science, technology and education fascinates me. Recently I developed interest in ancient astronomical instruments. In that connection I came to know that there are two libraries in India which preserve Astronomical Instruments. A small collection of unique medieval scientific instruments are kept in Khuda Bakhsh Oriental Public Library at Patna. Another  collection of scientific instruments are preserved at Raza Library, Rampur. All these instruments have been catalogued by great Sanskrit scholar R S Sarma. Two years ago I had the opportunity of visiting Khuda Bakhsh Oriental Public library in Patna to examine the Astronomical Instruments. While examining the instruments I became interested in history of public libraries. Last year I visited  David Sassoon library and reading room in Mumbai which was initially established as museum of mechanical models and architectural design. 

Raza Library, Rampur was founded by Nawab Faizullah Khan in 1774.  It contains very rare and valuable collection of manuscripts, historical documents, specimens of Islamic calligraphy, miniature paintings, astronomical instruments and rare illustrated works in Arabic and Persian languages besides 80,000 printed books. Rampur's Raza Library also contains printed works in Sanskrit, Hindi, Urdu, Pashto, Tamil and Turkish, and approximately 30,000 printed books  in various other languages. Nawab Faizullah Khan established the library with his personal modest collection kept in the Tosha Khana of his Palace. Successive Nawabs like Ahmad Ali khan,  Muhammad Yusuf  and  Kalbe Ali Khan also enriched the collection. Nawab Mohammad Saeed Khan  created a separate department for the library and shifted the collection to new rooms. The Nawab invited well known calligraphers, illuminators and binders from Kashmir and other parts of India. The Library has now attained an International status of higher studies. There are old art objects and rare astronomical instruments in the library. The oldest instrument of the collection is an Astrolabe made by Siraj Damashqi in 1218. Chronologically the next instrument is a Celestial globe crafted by Muhammad Ibn Jaffar at Kirman. Another astrolabe designed by Ziauddin Muhammad of Lahore and undated  mariner's astrolabe are also very important. There are about 100 rare manuscripts, paintings and astrolabes in the online gallery of library. India post issued a set of four commemorative stamps on 19.6.2009.

The history of David Sassoon Library is very fascinating. In 1847 a few young mechanics working in the Royal Mint and Government Dockyard decided to form an association to promote knowledge and learning. The association's objectives at that time were to set up a library and museum of mechanical models and architectural designs, as well as to organize lectures and discussions on science and technology. Thus was born the Sassoon Mechanic's Institute. In 1863, Sir David Sassoon, a Jewish philanthropist originally from Baghdad and  a leading banker of Mumbai, contributed Rupees sixty thousand  to the government to build a Mechanic's Institute. However, with the stoppage of the annual grant by the Imperial Government, its activities gradually came to a standstill, until the institute was reduced to its present state, namely a library and a reading room. Consequently in March 1938, the Sassoon Mechanics' Institute was rechristened the David Sassoon Library and Reading Room. The library is housed in Venetian Gothic styled structure, completed in 1870.The Library has been listed as a Grade heritage structure as per the Heritage Regulations of the Mumbai Municipal Corporation .The library's main assets are the rare books. Some of the books in the library's treasure are published way back in the year 1798.The Library houses about 40,000 books in English, Marathi, Gujarati and Hindi and is open all 365 days a year from 8 in the morning till 9 at night. India post issued a commemorative stamp in 1998.

Khuda Bakhsh Oriental Public Library, Patna was open for the public in October 1891 with 4000 Oriental manuscripts. Maulvi  Khuda Bakhsh donated his entire collection to the nation by a deed of trust. Some of the notable manuscripts are Timur Nama,  Shah Nama, PadshahNama, Diwan-e-Hafiz and Safinatul Auliya, carrying the autograph of Mughal Emperors and princes and the book of Military Accounts of Maharaja Ranjit Singh. The library offers several digitized manuscripts in downladable PDF format. It also offers two digitized albums on scientific instruments and Patna Qalam painting. The first album shows all the twelve unique and rare scientific instruments.  These are undoubtedly an important source for the study and reconstruction of science and technology in the pre-Modern period. They also provide an insight into the development of sciences like astronomy, surgery and geography in pre-Modern India. Apart from it the library also has specimens of Mughal paintings, sound recordings, maps, stamps, letters of eminent personality,  calligraphy and book decoration and Arabic and Urdu manuscripts including a page of Quran written on deer skin.  Since 1977 the library has been publishing regularly a multi-lingual research quarterly Khuda Bakhsh Library Journal. India post issued a commemorative stamp on  21.11.1994 which shows an oriental rug of Taj Mahal as motif preserved in the library.

These libraries are result of vision, passion and dedication of some committed people whether Nawabs,  philanthropist, bibliophile or ordinary mechanics. There is not much literature available on history of public libraries in India or their contribution in education entrepreneurship and culture. The scientific instruments preserved at Rampur Raza library and Khuda Bakhskh library are undoubtedly an important source for the study and reconstruction of science and technology in the pre-Modern period. They also provide an insight into the development of sciences like astronomy, surgery and geography in pre-Modern India.  It may be noted that these are the areas of scientific study in which the Islamic world made the most memorable contribution in the medieval ages and that the Indian subcontinent constituted an important centre for such studies, even after the glory of Baghdad, Maghreb and Spain had come to end.  As such, these antiques constitute an essential part of our heritage.  Significantly, Patna was a well-known centre for making sundials in the 19th century. Interestingly, a very large number of  manuscripts in Khuda Bakhsh library  relate to science and mathematics. Studies may be conducted on these aspects.  Case studies may be undertaken on role of David Sassoon library in promotion of indigenous technology, craftsmanship and entrepreneurship in pre independence Mumbai. 

The Directive on the restriction of hazardous substances in electronic goods

We are living in an electronic age. We have e-mail, e-banking, e-business, e-books, e-medicine (telemedicine) and so on. The e-products like laptops and cellular phones have penetrated the society in a big way.  However majority of users of these products are unaware of presence of hazardous chemicals in electronic goods. The Directive on the restriction of the use of certain hazardous substances in electrical and electronic equipment was adopted in 2003 by the European Union.  The RoHS-directive, restricts the use of six hazardous materials (viz., lead, mercury, cadmium, chromium, PBB and PDBE) in the manufacture of various types of electronic and electrical equipment.

PBB and PBDE are brominated flame retardants used in several plastics.  BFR release dioxins and furans which are neurotoxins. A long term exposure of these substances may lead to damage of Nervous system, Kidney, Bones, Reproductive System and Endocrine system.

Instead of indulging in innovation and R&D to design out toxic chemicals the electronics companies are busy in selling their hazardous products through aggressive marketing.  Consumers and Ministry of consumer’s affairs seem woefully ignorant of these issues. There is no ‘Jago grahak Jago’ campaign on RoHS directive or its exemption.

However the trend of going green and manufacturing clean products free from hazardous chemicals is slowly picking up. Consumers are becoming more informed and aware. They prefer green and clean products. Green labeling of e-products should be initiated for helping consumer in selection.

Hazardous chemicals should be substituted with safer alternatives. Several companies are launching safer products. Motorola launched BFR free cell phones. In India HCL and Wipro are complying with RoHS directive which promotes phasing out of six deadly substances viz., Pb, Hg, Cr, Cadmium, and two BFRs in e-products.