The Khusoof or Lunar Eclipse

The khusoof or  Lunar Eclipse will be taking place in Jammu and Kashmir and other parts of the country  between 6:16 pm to 9:48 pm on Saturday, December 10.I am fascinated by moon since my childhood. When I was a youngster my father brought a popular science book in Urdu ‘Nau Saiyare Ektis Chand’ for me. Through this book I came to know that moon is a non luminous body and it shines by reflecting the solar light. I was so upset by this fact that I hid the book lest others may know about the truth that moon does not have its own light. I was naïve like any other child of my age.

 A lunar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes behind the Earth so that the Earth blocks the Sun's rays from striking the Moon. This can occur only when the Sun, Earth, and Moon are aligned exactly, or very closely so, with the Earth in the middle. Hence, a lunar eclipse can only occur during the night of a full moon. It might be expected that during every full moon t the Earth's shadow will fall on the Moon, causing a lunar eclipse.  Lunar eclipses are not observed every month because the plane of the Moon's orbit around the Earth is tilted by about five degrees with respect to the plane of Earth's orbit around the Sun. Thus, when a full moons occurs, the Moon usually lies to the north or south of a direct line through the Earth and Sun. Although a lunar eclipse can only occur when the Moon is  full, it must also be positioned very near the intersection of Earth's orbit plane about the Sun and the Moon's orbit plane about the Earth that is, at one of its nodes.

The shadow of the Earth can be divided into two distinctive parts: the umbra and penumbra. Within the umbra, there is no direct solar radiation. Due to the Sun’s large angular size, solar light is only partially blocked in the outer portion of the Earth’s shadow or penumbra. A penumbral eclipse occurs when the Moon passes through the Earth’s penumbra. A partial lunar eclipse occurs when only a portion of the Moon enters the umbra. When the Moon travels completely into the Earth’s umbra, one observes a total lunar eclipse.

Unlike a solar eclipse, which can only be viewed from a certain relatively small area of the world, a lunar eclipse may be viewed from anywhere on the night side of the Earth. A lunar eclipse lasts for a few hours, whereas a total solar eclipse lasts for only a few minutes at any given place, due to the smaller size of the moon's shadow.

Since moon is a non luminous body, lunar eclipses (unlike Solar Eclipses) are completely safe to observe with the naked eye - no special equipment or filters are needed. Sometimes a Total Lunar Eclipse is best viewed without any optical aid, and just lying under the stars watching the change as the Moon first gets slightly darker (penumbral phase), then starts to get eaten away (partial phase), finally turning deep red as it enters totality. The eclipse is a unique opportunity to admire and celebrate the beauty and inspiration of this celestial experience. It is also preferable to offer two rak’aat Salate Khusoof.

The Year 2012 sky stores five celestial events for the sky gazers. This includes Annular Solar Eclipse on 20th May, Partial Lunar Eclipse on 4th June, Transit of Venus on 6th June, Total Solar Eclipse on 13th November and Penumbral Lunar Eclipse on 28th November.

Enhancing soils anywhere enhances life everywhere

This was the theme of last year’s World Day to Combat Desertification which is observed every year on 17 June. The World Day to Combat Desertification has been observed since 1995 to promote public awareness relating to combat desertification, land degradation and the effects of drought. The year 2006 was observed as International year of desert and desertification.  Desertification is one of the world’s most alarming processes of environmental degradation. This issue is often undermined by a common perception, that it is a natural problem of advancing deserts in some faraway places. If desert invokes images of sand in your mind then expand your imagination as there are polar and cold winter deserts as well. The arid tracts lying in the rain-shadow of the main Himalayan range are commonly referred to as cold deserts. They include the trans Himalayan areas lying across the towering main Himalayan mountain wall and the inner dry valleys within this range, both of which fall in the rain shadow of the soaring mountains, thereby remaining largely unaffected by the monsoon system that brings rain to other parts of India. Ladakh is a cold desert.  In fact, broadly speaking, desertification is about land degradation: the loss of the land’s biological productivity, caused by human-induced factors and climate change. Land degradation is defined as lowering and loss of soil functions.  It affect one third of the earth. Desertification results chiefly from man-made activities and influenced by climatic variations. It is principally caused by overgrazing, over-drafting of groundwater and diversion of water from rivers for human consumption and industrial use. Soil fertility has declined due to overuse of chemical fertilizers. Land degradation is becoming more and more serious worldwide in recent years, and poses a threat to agricultural production and terrestrial ecosystem. Land degradation includes loss of top soil, physical changes like damage of soil structure (compaction), chemical changes like salinization, sodification, acidification, deposition of heavy metals and an overall declination of fertility and productivity of soil. It is estimated that nearly 2 billion hectare of soil resources in the world have been degraded which includes approximately 22 % of the total cropland, pasture, forest, and woodland. Severe erosion of the fertile top soil through wind and water action is aggravated by intensive mining, deforestation, improper land management as well as injudicious tillage practices in agricultural fields. Besides that a sizeable amount of loss of top soil has been has been attributed to brick making and pottery. Brick making is robbing top fertile soil (30 cm depth) at the rate of thousand square kilo meter per year.  It is important to note that it takes centuries to replenish 3 cm of top soil.

Land degradation is also caused by water logging and excessive salinity. The most serious threat to the land is posed by deforestation. Heavy rainfall during monsoon damages the soil too. Steep slopes encourage rapid run-off leading to soil erosion, especially on the southern slopes of the Himalayas. In fact, major portion of the Himalayas are prone to landslides and erosion. Urban encroachment on agricultural land is another burning problem.

A major impact of desertification is reduced biodiversity and diminished productive capacity, for example, by transition from land dominated by shrublands to non-native grasslands. Soil is the hot-spot of biodiversity.  Beneath feet they construct a wonderful world. Each community of this ‘under world’ is working honestly for correcting the soil condition and making soil live so that above ground plant growth is ensured and thus biodiversity is maintained. Thus, belowground diversity influences the nature and makeup of above ground diversity. The year 2010 was the International Year dedicated to Biodiversity. Desertification, land degradation and drought dramatically affect the biodiversity resident in the soil.  Healthy soils produce life, and yet soil health depends a lot on how individuals use their land. What we do to our soils determines the quality and quantity of the food we eat and how our ecosystems serve us. Our increasing ecological interdependence also means enhancing soils anywhere enhances life everywhere.

Land, the marvelous product of nature, without which no life would survive, is now at stake worldwide. The time has come to sustain it for our sustenance.

ICT and Women Empowerment: A case study on small scale service providers

Dr. Seemin Rubab

Senior Lecturer, Physics, NIT Srinagar

drseeminrubab@gmail.com

Introduction

These days the term information and communication technology (ICT) has come to mean all technical means used to handle information and aid communication, including computer and network hardware as well as necessary software. Among other things, ICT has opened vistas for small scale enterprise. In fact ICT could be of immense help in self employment and empowerment of women. Empowerment refers to increasing the spiritual, political, social or economic strength of individuals and communities. It often involves the empowered developing confidence in their own capacities. Women's ability to take advantage of ICTs is however dependent on education, conducive policies and an enabling environment in their regions to extend communications infrastructure to them. Examples of ICT impacting women include Health awareness through telemedicine, Networking of women professionals, Running small enterprises from home etc. It can be helpful in setting SOHO (Small Office/Home office) business in areas such as patenting, proof reading of books and journals, DTP jobs, free lance journalism, science communication, personalised tuition, clinical pathology jobs, scientific toys and model making, catering, boutique and tailoring,  beautician, henna artist, masseuse etc. All these jobs/services could be run from home using a cell phone or Personal computer (PC) and internet connection. Local cable or internet can be used to advertise and market their product and services. This study deals with potential of ICT in enhancing the income of semi skilled and moderately skilled women.

SOHO Business opportunities for women

Small office home office (SOHO) concept is picking up among women.  They prefer SOHO to spend more time with their families and to enjoy greater flexibility. It is also advantageous for women as there is no glass ceiling to limit their growth.  Many SOHO opportunities exist for women in Kashmir. Several opportunities have been tapped while other may be realized in future.

Government of India is also doing its bit in promoting self employment opportunities for women. ‘Internship for self employment’ Program of Department of science and Technology (DST) is one such  initiative on Government’s part in helping women empowerment through ICT. Internship scheme has been designed for providing opportunities to women scientists and technologists who desire to return to mainstream science after a career break. It mainly concerns with utilization of expertise of women scientists in areas such as patenting, proof reading for science books and journals, technical writing and technical translation, science journalism, medical transcription, clinical pathology jobs etc. The trained interns can form professional network. There is a special drive for promoting women in the field of Intellectual Property Rights.  Depending upon requirement these women trained in patenting may be assigned jobs on contractual basis. They can run their own office from home. The scheme is being coordinated and implemented by Patent Facilitating Centre (PFC) of Technology Information, Forecasting and Assessment Council (TIFAC) on behalf of DST. The selection of the candidates is done by an all India Examination. The fellowship examination is held every year in February at four centres namely Delhi, Pune, Kharagpur and Chennai. The interns undergo training with a suitable stipend for a period of one year.

Creative women scientists may plunge into the field of science communication after going through some distance or online training. Expertise of female science communicators may be used in producing exhibition modules in several areas including history of science, low cost experimentation, science -technology - society issues, gender issues, health education, mathematics and astronomy. Women scientists/technologists can even start an enterprise in science toys and model making. There is a big market for science model/toys in India. Nobody has tapped this potential as yet. They can advertise and market their product through internet. Websites like www.sci-toys.com and arvindguptatoys.com will be helpful in getting started.

One emerging use of internet technology is coming up in personalized tuition. A group of tutors in various subjects may form a professional organization and can operate through web. One such professional network is Tutor vista. Certified tutors of tutor vista earn Rs 15,000-20,000 per month.  They are trained in using ICT specially the technology of tele-conferencing. For start ups it is better to join as tutor in an existing network, gain experience and start their own local network. The infrastructure required for this type of venture is a PC and a reliable internet connection. Additional hardware may be required for tele-conferencing.

Small scale service providers in Kashmir

Many semi skilled women in Kashmir run their business from home and advertise through word of mouth. Satisfied clients recommend their services to other prospective clients. Many small scale service providers such as beautician, make up and Henna artist, tailor, baby sitter, doula, contractual domestic help, tiffin providers etc. operate in this way. A beautician on call does not need to hire a parlour space and pay electricity and water charges.  This way they cut on their cost and optimize their gain.  She may attend clients in a given locality on same day to cut on her travel time and cost. Their services are a boon for working women. Generally working women have paucity of time. They do not have time for skin care, pedicure or manicure. They may call the beautician at home and get the needful done.

The other emerging opportunities exist for tailoring and contractual domestic help services. In Kashmir due to weather conditions, lots of upholstery, curtains and quilts are required. With the advent of winter most of households want to get the covers of quilts, mattresses and blankets get stitched. During winters woollen curtains are also required. These things are best stitched at home to get the perfect fit. Few enterprising female tailors have started providing their services at the client’s home at the call of phone.  

Kashmiri marriages are a fortnightly affair. There are several steps involved and it takes 10-15 days of celebration. The family needs help of contractual domestic help to entertain guests. Many domestic help provide their services on contractual basis on the occasion of marriage, child birth, Hajj departure etc.  

Due to urbanization and other reasons joint families are giving ways to nuclear family. More often in such families women are also engaged in regular jobs. During pregnancy and child birth such woman need emotional, psychological and physical support. In developed countries and in Indian metros services of Doula are available for such purposes. Doulas are trained as child birth educator.  They are however not supposed to perform clinical duties. Many Doula offer phone and email support as well as prenatal and postpartum visits to ensure the mother is informed and supported. A postpartum doula provides support to the mother and family following the birth. This may include breastfeeding support, newborn care assistance, cooking, light housekeeping and errands. She offers education, companionship and support following the birth. She also provides evidence-based information on emotional and physical recovery from birth, infant feeding, infant soothing and coping skills for new parents.

Impact of ICT on Business

Before the advent of cell phone technology, the small scale service providers were underemployed most of the time. During an informal interview a beautician revealed that her income has enhanced by (30-40) % after using a cellphone. On a good day she may make around Rs. 1000. They Henna and makeup artists may carry a portfolio of their designs in cell phone and offer them to their prospective clients to choose from. The business of these small scale service providers can improve a lot if they form a network and use mass media such as local cable network to advertise for their services along with their contact information.

Requisite Intervention

The small scale service providers may be trained in using ICT and networking. They may be helped in advertising of their services.  The may be trained in using internet and opening their website. Makeup and Henna artists, tailors etc. may be trained in making their profiles on cell phone or laptops. Training of Doula is conducted in Indian Metros like Mumbai and Bengaluru by Indian Chapter of Childbirth and Post-partum Professional Association (CAPPA). Local chapters of CAPPA may be opened for training and networking of Doulas.  

References

Seemin Rubab ’Women in Science, Engineering and Technology: Challenges and Opportunities’ Proceedings of  National conference on socio-economic development: Challenges before Women scientists, Technologists  and Engineers held during Feb 13-15, 2009 at NIT Rourkela.

S. Mukhopadhya and VB Kamble  (2006) Information and Communication Technology and Gender, Vigyan Prasar, NOIDA

Sugra Chunawala (2003) Gender and Science, Homi Bhabha Centre for Science Education, Mumbai

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doula

http://www.dst.gov.in

  

A Tribute to Women in Science

Dr. Seemin Rubab

AP, Physics, NIT Srinagar

drseeminrubab@gmail.com

Many women have contributed  toward the growth and development of science from the time immemorial.  Hypatia, Hildegard, Maria Sybellia, Madame du Chatlet, Sophie Germain, Agnesi  and others contributed immensely to science but many a times clandestinely.   Almost all of the above mentioned women were self taught.  Sophie Germain had to submit her work at Ecole Polytechnique under a male student’s name. It was however Madam Curie who changed the rule. She defied all norms and won two Nobel prizes in Physics and Chemistry. In doing so she inspired a whole lot of future women scientists and engineers. Her daughter Irene Curie-Joliot was also a Nobel laureate. Her grand-daughter Helene –Joliot-langevin is also a top physicist. India post honoured her by issuing a stamp in 1968 at her birth centenary. The stamp also shows radium treatment. She is also on the FDC of cancer awareness stamp.

Maria Montessori was trained as physician. She was the first female doctor of Italy. She then acquired degrees in psychology, anthropology and philosophy. She was the pioneer of Montessori-method of education. The basis of Montessori-method is that a child learns on its own and the teacher is only the facilitator of education.  Dr. Maria came to India in 1939 on the invitation of Theosophical society of India and remained here for ten years. She conducted Montessori training courses in India. India post honoured her by issuing a stamp in 1970 at her birth centenary.

Ida Scudder was another physician who made India her home.  She was a graduate from Cornell Medical College and her batch was the first when women were allowed admission. She started a dispensary and clinic for women in Vellore. Then she started Christian Medical College for women in Vellore in 1918. In 1945 the college was opened to men as well. A stamp issued on August 12, 2000 as part of centenary celebrations of Christian Medical College depicts the college chapel. The First-day cover portrays Dr Ida Scudder.

When we highlight contribution of women in science we generally fail to include the contributions of nurses and paramedical staff.  Nurses constitute a strong scientific and technical work force in health sector.  India post has not issued any commemorative stamp on nurses but nurses do feature on children day stamp and red-cross society stamp.

Indian Women in Aviation was the highlight of the philatelic release in 1998. The stamp was brought out to commemorate the contribution of Indian women in the realm of aviation. The concept by designer J.P. Irani has symbolically presented young women as commercial pilot, flier of IAF planes, and as an astronaut. Kalpana Chawla was the first Indian American astronaut and was the mission specialist on the space shuttle STS-87. She died on the return journey of the space shuttle Columbia.  She had conducted experiments on microgravity. She is portrayed on the stamp of Palau with other crew members.

An ode to unsung indigenous women scientists and technologists

Dr. Seemin Rubab

AP, Physics, NIT Srinagar              

drseeminrubab@gmail.com

Introduction

Since time immemorial humans have tried to understand their environment and solve problems of daily life using science and technology. Women have contributed in many ways to the technical advancement of humanity by tool making and farming.  Women possess indigenous technical knowledge and practice science and technology in their everyday lives. It is however a pity that the technologies which are of practical use in the household are excluded from recognition. It is largely due to the non-existence of a formal scientific base and the narrow and flawed view of technology as an application of scientific knowledge. Women have always been associated with child rearing and house- keeping. Therefore, the techniques developed by women for the efficient utilization of products that ensure the family's survival are not recognized as technologies, and as such, they are devalued. Traditional technologies practised by women are not formally documented, while new innovations, which are supported by mass propaganda, are placed in the hands of men. Circumstances have enabled women to develop technologies for processing food to ensure household food supplies in the event of any contingencies. Midwifery and nutrition are among few other areas in which women excel but they are not acclaimed or valued as science.

Women, agriculture and food processing

Many archaeologists credit the discovery of agriculture to women. In all hunting gathering societies food gathering is done by women. Due to this reason women were more likely to observe plant behaviour. By trial and error they could have made this crucial discovery. In pre historic times, to a large extent farming was carried out by women. They used digging sticks and hoe for farming. With the invention of plough the agriculture passed slowly from women into the hands of men.  Over the period women became marginalised in agriculture and left to do the back biting work of transplantation and plucking. In present day rural societies, women are still in charge of kitchen gardens. Women specialize in food security, diversity and nutritional bio-security. Men believe in farming for cash whereas women grow fruits and vegetables to ensure nutritional bio- security and variety at household level. Moreover women process fruits and vegetables available in one season to be used in lean season. This technology benefits household in many ways. One of the benefits of indigenous food processing technology is that it can be practiced in the home to make best use of available resources. Due credits must be given to the practice of open sun drying of vegetables by Kashmiri women in summer. These dried vegetables known as ‘Hokh Seun’ in local parlance provides assortment and nutritional security in harsh winter months. Fruits and vegetables are home processed to make Jams and pickles. Homemakers also process milk to obtain cottage cheese, butter and curd which have longer shelf life, better nutritional values and provide range in food value. Every woman is an expert in kitchen thermodynamics and heat transfer which she has learnt by practice and experience. Due credits should be given to grandmothers and great grand mothers who wrap the pots  full of cooked rice with blankets to ensure that it remains hot at time of consumption. Warm milk is mixed with right amount of culture to prepare yoghurt. The temperature is maintained to ensure proper reaction. Grandmothers can give flawless demonstrations on centrifugal force while making butter although she may not know Newton or kinematics.  

Women and Health

When we highlight contribution of women in science we generally fail to include and acknowledge the contributions of nurses and midwives. In all times, nurses and midwives constitute a strong scientific and technical work force in health sector. In ancient Egypt, midwifery was a recognized female occupation. Midwifery in Greco-Roman antiquity covered a wide range of women, including old women who continued folk medical traditions in the villages of the Roman Empire, trained midwives who garnered their knowledge from a variety of sources, and highly trained women who were considered female physicians. Early Chinese and Indian writings also mentioned midwives. Throughout the Middle Ages, midwives relied on a variety of herbs and potions, which are seen as the forerunner of present-day medicine. Women have indigenous knowledge about medicinal plants, herbs and spices. Many common ailments are treated at home using kitchen condiments. Hildegard of Bingen, Germany was well known for her healing powers involving practical application of tinctures, herbs, and precious stones. Hildegard also wrote   about the need to boil water as early as in twelfth centaury in her medicinal texts.

Women and Apparel Technology

Early women have developed pins, fasteners, buttons, beads  and  sewing needles etc. with bones antlers and wood to stitch clothing. Stitching preceded spinning and weaving. Initially apparels were made from hide and grass. The first sewing needles were made from bone and were used to sew animal hides together. The most ancient sewing needles, which date back to 28,000 BC, did not have an eye but a split end which gripped the thread to be sewn.  Raffia, gut or sinew were improvised as threads. Native Americans used porcupine quills and the pointed end of agave leaves for sewing needles. The fibers of the agave leaf were also used for thread. The agave leaf would be soaked for an extended period of time, leaving a pulp, long, stringy fibers and a sharp tip connecting the ends of the fibers. The "needle" is essentially the tip end of the leaf. Once the fibers dried, the fibers and "needle" could then be used to sew together skins and other items used in a cloth-like manner. Shoemakers used needles made from hog bristles in the Middle Ages. While acknowledging Elias Howe and Singer for designing sewing machines those unsung women inventors of pre history may also be remembered.

The spindle for twisting fibre into thread and loom for weaving thread into cloth are in use from neo- lithic period. Spindles and spinning are also an integral part to the mythology and folklore of many cultures. All over the world rural women still use spindle and hand loom. The women in north east use hand loom and weave beautiful Phaneks (long skirt), half sarees, bed sheets etc. at home. They sell them in the women market.

Women and Environmental Sustainability                

Women particularly those living in rural areas or mountain areas have special relationship with the environment.  The life of mountain women is so much intertwined with the environment that whole ecosystem revolves around her and she can't even think of her survival without it. Mountain women depend on forests for fuel, fodder, water and minor forest products. Women have always been the principal conservers of bio-diversity. Even today they perform duties such as seed selection, multiplication and conservation. In comparison men tend to destroy nature to earn cash. Women give greater priority to protection of and improving the capacity of nature, maintaining farming lands, and caring for nature and environment's future. This is why women are affected differently than men by environmental degradation, deforestation and pollution. Women are often the most directly affected by environmental issues, so they become more concerned about environmental problems. One of the first environmentalist movements which were inspired by women was the Chipko movement (chipko in Hindi means ‘to stick’). The movement was an act of defiance against the state government's permission given to a corporation for commercial logging. Women of the villages resisted, embracing trees to prevent their felling to safeguard their lifestyles which were dependent on the forests.

The other notable environmental movement initiated by women of Africa is Green Belt Movement. Nobel Prize winner Wangari Maathai founded this movement on the World Environment Day in June 1977. The beginning was modest: a few women planted seven trees in Maathai's backyard. By 2005, 30 million trees had been planted by participants in the Green Belt movement on public and private lands. One of the most remarkable environmentalists is Rachel Carson. Her book ‘Silent Springs’ which documents the impact of Pesticide on Marine life continues to inspire fresh generation of ecologists.

Intervention and Success Stories

The technologies which are appropriate for women and environment include, improved cook stove, pressure cooker, solar cooker, solar water heater, solar drier and biogas technology. The women should be trained in designing and dissemination of these technologies. An intervention of this kind has been initiated at several places and there are few success stories to emulate.

The bare foot engineers from TILLONIA Women’s group not only install, maintain and repair but also manufacture parabolic solar cookers with confidence. At Bahai women’s group from Madhya Pradesh women are manufacturing and selling solar cookers. Brahmakumaris use concentrated parabolic solar cookers in the kitchen at their Om Shanti Retreat Centre, where food is cooked for 1000 persons daily. They also run 200 KW solar powered plant which takes care of their lighting requirements. These are mainly managed by women.

An important innovation for the construction of bio gas plants, using bamboo reinforced cement mortar (BMRC) had been experimented and field tested jointly by WAFD (Women’s Action for Development) and INSEDA (Integrated Sustainable Energy and Ecological Development Association). The use of bamboo baskets had brought down the price of this biogas plant. It also ensures the participation of women in the weaving of bamboo structures for constructing this model.

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Concluding Remarks

There is a stereo type that women are not technologists and that they are not capable of building, operating and maintaining sophisticated technologies. Women’s indigenous technology innovations, often highly sophisticated, have not been considered as real “science”. It is high time that the perception about women, science and technology should be changed. The indigenous technologies practiced by women should be recognised, valued and documented.  Technology does not only mean designing new machines, it also means adapting them to the context of use. Many women are the users and adaptors of technology. When women are included in development process of science and technology,  science will become more vibrant, interesting and eco friendly.  For example it is difficult to illustrate or demonstrate hyperbolic surfaces. Daina Taimina  a Latvian mathematician crochets objects to illustrate hyperbolic space. Realising the difficulty in threading a sewing needle, the spiral eye, side threading needle is invented by Pam Turner. Maria Telkes designed a solar passive house using phase change materials which keeps the house warm in winter without using fuels. These are just a few success stories, if women are included in the scientific process many more success stories will follow.

References

Anoja Wickramasinghe (1993) ‘Women and indigenous technology’ Canadian Women Studies, Vol 13, No 2

Seemin Rubab (2008) Women in Science, Engineering and Technology: Challenges and Opportunities’ Proceedings of National conference on socio-economic development: Challenges before Women scientists, Technologists and Engineers held during Feb 13-15, 2009 at NIT Rourkela.

Seemin Rubab  (2010) ‘ICT and Women Empowerment: A case study on small scale service providers’ in a seminar on ‘Women in changing scenario’ at Government College of Education, on 8.3.2010.

S. Mukhopadhya and VB Kamble (2006) Information and Communication Technology and Gender, Vigyan Prasar, NOIDA

Sugra Chunawala (2003) Gender and Science, Homi Bhabha Centre for Science Education, Mumbai

Sugra Chunawala et al (2002) The roots of reason: Science and technology in the ancient world, Homi Bhabha Centre for Science Education, Mumbai

Kangri: the portable heater

The world famous valley of Kashmir has mostly temperate type of climate. The four seasons of spring, summer, autumn and winter are quite distinct here. Spring starts from March. The short summer stays for June-August. Fall starts from September and stays till mid-November. Real harsh winter stays from mid-November to end of February. During winter nights the mercury dips to sub zero temperatures. The max mean temperature during these months seldom exceeds 10 degree Celsius. Spring season heralds with the blooming of almond and cherry plants. The spring season is also the rainy season hence plantation season.

                After a good rainfall the temperature becomes quite low even in spring. The Kashmiri Populace have devised many smart ways to combat the harshness of the weather. They construct houses which have minimum of open spaces like verandah, court yard, lounge and balcony etc. To minimize thermal losses the floor of the houses are extensively furnished. During winters the windows are sealed with polythene sheets. Doors are mainly closed and thick woolen curtains are used. In fact blankets are improvised as bed-sheets and curtains. People wear long woolen cloak called Phiran over their clothes. Electric heaters/blowers, special portable metallic room heaters known as Bukhari, which burns firewood / coal are extensively used. Recently LPG room heaters have also flooded the market. But nothing beats the convenience of Kangdi. It consists of a small earthenware pot of capacity 300-500 gm, housed in a small willow basket. It burns charcoal made mostly of leaves and twigs fallen during autumn. Every evening lady of the house lit the charcoal in the Kangdi while preparing dinner.  Once lit, the heat in Kangdi lasts for 6-7 hours. When ash collects on the top layer and the heat in the Kangdi is reduced it is stirred delicately with a metallic spatula which is generally attached to Kangdi. The ash sets in the bottom and lit charcoal is exposed to the air. During winter evenings people love to sit in kitchen in Kashmiri households. Kashmiri kitchen is more than a kitchen, it is a living room where the entire family sits, chats, have tea and meals and watches T.V or listen to radio. The kangdi is most effective when it is kept  inside the Phiran, then the fire lasts longer and it keeps the entire body warm. The heat is trapped in the Phiran. A novice uses it like room heaters / blowers that is keeping it near and warming him / herself. That way the charcoal burns away quickly. Moreover the person doesn’t get the requisite warmth either. It is the combination of the Phiran and  Kangdi that does the trick.  Due to its small size Kangdi is portable . People take it inside their Phiran and go outdoors to do their daily chore. In far flung remote hamlets, Kangdi is the only heating option available  to common man. With the start of winter every household starts collecting twigs and leaves especially of Chinar. They prepare charcoal and store it for long winter. People also start buying new Kangdis which is available in the markets throughout the valley. It is affordable to common man. It costs around  Rs. 40 to 50 . It lasts for 2-3 years . Specially decorated Kangdis costs more . A metallic spatula costs Rs 10-15. Brides carry very beautiful Kangdis with silver spatula. The Kangdi of Charare-Sherif are famous for their beauty and craftsmanship. Kangdis along with Samavar and Tash- Nari epitomize Kashmiri culture. Kangdi making  is a cottage industry which gives employment to many rural folk. The time is changing, now the willow which is used to make the outer cover of the Kangdi is now not so abundant. In olden times it was freely available everywhere. Now people have to collects it from forests. Kangdi makers have to shell quite a good amount to get the willow.                                            

Longest Eclipse of the Century

One of the grandest spectacles of nature – the total solar eclipse occured on July 22, 2009. An eclipse of the Sun takes place when the Moon comes between the Earth and the Sun so that the

Moon’s shadow sweeps over the face of the Earth. This may occur on a new Moon day. This does not happen on every new Moon day due to the inclination of the Moons orbit with respect to earth’s orbit. When the Sun, the  Moon and the Earth are aligned in a straight line in the same plane, then only  an eclipse takes place. It is a remarkable coincidence that the Sun and the Moon appear very nearly of the same angular size from the Earth. However, their apparent sizes depend on their distances from the Earth. This happens because the Earth revolves in an elliptical orbit around the Sun and the Moon too revolves in an elliptical orbit around the Earth. When the Sun is closest to the Earth, and Moon the farthest, the apparent size of the Moon is smaller than that of the Sun. The Moon passing over the Sun’s disc cannot cover it completely, but leave the rim of the Sun visible. Such an eclipse is called annular. In a total solar eclipse the position of the Sun and the Moon is such that their angular size is exactly the same, so Moon completely covers the solar disc. It is an event so rare that most people do not get an opportunity to witness it even once in their lifetime. On an average, a total solar eclipse may occur at a particular place on the Earth only once in about 360 years.

The shadow of the Moon consists of two parts: the umbra, or the total shadow, a cone into which no direct sunlight penetrates; and the penumbra, or partial shadow, which is caused by light reaching from only a part of the Sun’s disc. To an observer within the umbra, the Sun’s disc appears completely covered by the disc of the Moon. For an observer within the penumbra, however, the Moon’s disc appears projected against the Sun’s discs so as to overlap it partly. The eclipse is then partial to the observer. Sometimes the Earth misses the umbra but only intercepts the penumbra. Under such circumstances, only partial solar eclipse is observed anywhere on the Earth. The umbral cone being narrow at the distance of the Earth, the total solar eclipse is observed only over a narrow strip of land or sea over which it passes. The partial solar eclipse, however, can be seen from a large number of places covered by the penumbra. Fortunately the path of totality of the 22 July eclipse  passed through a large numbers of Indian cities and densely populated regions. 

It was also the longest solar eclipse of the century, with totality lasting for 6 minutes and 39 seconds at maximum along its path making it the longest until the year 2132. Under the most favourable conditions, however, the totality can last for a maximum of 7½ minutes.

Total solar eclipse is a grand spectacle. About twenty minutes before totality, there is a sizeable decrease in the intensity of light. Some three minutes before totality the sky darkens considerably. Only a narrow crescent of the Sun can be seen.  About a minute before the totality ripples of dark and bright bands, called ‘shadow bands’, appear to move over a white plain surface such as a building facade. The intensity of light quickly drops in the next few seconds and the real drama begins. The sunlight shining through the valleys of the Moon give the appearance of a beaded necklace. The final flash of light from the Moon’s valleys produces a brilliant flare known as the 'diamond ring’. Soon after the diamond ring vanishes, the chromosphere  of the Sun that lies just above the visible photosphere blazes into view, indicating that the totality has just begun. One could then see red or orange jets of fire shooting to millions of kilometres above the surface of the Sun, called prominences. The Sun is now completely hidden behind the Moon and the magnificent pearly white corona flashes into view. Corona is the Sun’s outer atmosphere consisting of hot sparse gases that extends to millions of kilometers. It is generally quite feeble, its brightness being comparable to that of the Moon and hence not visible ordinarily due to the glare of the photosphere. The shape of the corona varies with the 11-year solar cycle giving it a different look during every total solar eclipse. And, before one realizes what has happened, the entire sequence repeats in the reverse order! During totality, all the stars and planets normally invisible during daytime also come into view. 

A total solar eclipse gives scientists the opportunity to study the atmosphere of the Sun. The corona can be studied in minute details only during such rare events. Indeed, the element Helium was discovered on the surface of the Sun during a total solar eclipse on 17 August 1868 by the French astronomer Janssen ! It was during the total solar eclipse of 29 May 1919 that the General Theory of Relativity of Einstein was first tested by observing the deflection of light coming from a distant star by the gravitational field of the Sun.

It is however advisable never to watch the Sun − eclipsed or uneclipsed − with naked eye. It could permanently damage the retina and the vision. For direct viewing of the partial phase of the eclipse only tested safe solar filters, or the dark arc welder’s glass No. 14 should be used.